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* ''Substitutes for leadership theory'' is a leadership theory first developed by Steven Kerr and John M. Jermier in 1978. The theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). It has received criticism for shortcomings due to perceived methodological issues (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater, & James, 2002; Podsakoff & Mackenzie, 1995). Empirical research has produced mixed results as to its ability to predict subordinate outcomes. ==Origins== Over the years, researchers have developed many leadership theories. Prior to the 1970s, ''trait leadership theory'' and ''path-goal theory'' were the two heavily researched theories. (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). Proponents of trait leadership theory held that the ability to lead is a characteristic some people innately have and others do not. Effort was put forth to uncover which characteristics and abilities leaders had that separated them from non-leaders. ''Leadership style'' was another angle researchers took. Proponents of this approach did not believe the ability to lead was innate, rather it was a set of behaviors anyone could learn (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). In the mid 1970s, a great deal of research was dedicated to the ''contingency model'' and path-goal theory (Schriesheim, 1997). The contingency model stated that various leadership styles would be more or less effective depending on the situation (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001; Fiedler, 1965; Hunt, 1967). Path-goal theory proposed that subordinates would be satisfied with their leader if they perceived that their leader’s behavior would bring them future satisfaction. Subordinates would be motivated by their leader if they perceived that completing work tasks would bring them satisfaction, and if the leader provided proper coaching, support, rewards, and guidance (House, 1996). Frustrations with not being able to find significant results with any one theory resulted in the development of reexaminations and new approaches, including questioning which situations necessitated a leader figure and which did not (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). Steven Kerr was one of the researchers publicly expressing his frustrations (e.g., Kerr & Harlan, 1973) with current leadership theories. In the 1970s, Kerr was at Ohio State University actively involved in leadership research. Kerr was studying existing proposed subordinate constructs such as ''organizational independence'' (Schriesheim, 1997) and proposed leadership constructs such as consideration and initiating structure (put forth by the Ohio State Leadership Studies; Kerr, Schriesheim, Murphy, & Stogdill, 1974). Subordinates that are organizational independents do not feel tied to one company and are internally motivated instead of motivated by the characteristics of the organization, such as leader behavior (House & Kerr, 1973; Schriesheim, 1997). Leaders high on initiating structure clarify their own role and their subordinates’ roles in obtaining a goal (Kerr et al., 1974). Kerr and colleagues (1974) noticed many studies had found significant moderators that played a part in the relationship between initiating structure leader behavior and subordinate outcomes. For example, when a task was ambiguous, the relationship between leader initiating structure and subordinate satisfaction was stronger than if the task was clear. These findings made it apparent that there were variables that affected the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate outcomes, making the relationship stronger or weaker. Kerr (1973) was the first to coin substitutes for leadership as elements in the work setting that lessened leader effectiveness on subordinate outcomes. Further publications (e.g., Kerr et al., 1974) led to Kerr and Jermier’s 1978 paper, which unveiled substitutes for leadership theory. This paper presented two types of elements in the job environment: ''substitutes'' and ''neutralizers''. These elements were proposed to serve as moderators in the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate outcomes. The theory originally classified substitutes as characteristics of the subordinate, characteristics of the task, and characteristics of the organization. Howell, Dorfman, & Kerr (1986) proposed an alteration to the theory in terms of subordinate classification. They argued that moderators should be grouped based on their effect on the criterion. The original theory had already proposed moderators that act as substitutes and moderators that act as neutralizers. Howell and colleagues added enhancers to these. Substitutes for leadership theory was a heavily researched area until the late 1980s, when transformational leadership became the focus of the majority of leadership research (Dionne, Yammarino, Howell, & Villa, 2005). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Substitutes for Leadership Theory」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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